Voltaire: (1694-1778) 1. Born as Francois- Marie Arouet 2. One of the most influential philosophes of the Enlightenment 3. Imprisoned twice as a political prisoner in the Bastille 4. Lived with multiple enlightened rulers, such as Frederick the Great of Prussia 5. Wrote the novel Candide (1759), a satire that poked fun at war, politicians, and religious persecution.
John Jacques Rosseau: (1712-1778) 1. Another major philosophe 2. Women should be educated, but should remain subordinate to men. 3. Women are in the domestic sphere of life, while men are in the active, political sphere. 4. Wrote the Social Contract (1762), which gave a basic outline of the social structure that Rosseau wanted. 5. “Society is more important than the individual members”. 6. Surprisingly, he had a large following of women.
Montesquieu: (1689-1755) 1. born Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu 2. Lawyer, a noble of the robe, and a member of a parlement. 3. Wrote The Persian Letters (1721) to criticize contemporary institutions. 4. Also wrote Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was considered the most influential book of the century. He concluded that, “No single set of political laws could apply to all people at all times and in all places”. 5. Believed in division of power in the government, Checks and balances.
Baruch Spinoza: (1632-1677) 1. “Set the example for the secularized version of Judaism”. 2. wrote Ethics, his most famous book, and he was condemned because he wrote about God in such great detail 3. He was excommunicated from his own synagogue 4. He was actually a devout Jew, but he was looked down upon by Christians and Jews. 5. The Philosophes viewed him as “a martyr for rationality against superstition”
Mosel Mendelshon: (1729-1786) 1. Mendelshon “established the main outlines of an assimilationist position. 2. Considered to be the leading Jewish philosopher of his time. 3. He was considered the “Jewish Socrates” 4. Believed that Judaism could be combined with rationality 5. Wrote On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism (1783), which promoted religious toleration and maintaining the distinctive lines of the Jewish society.
Denis Diderot: (1713-1784) 1. one of the authors of the Encyclopedia 2. The Encyclopedia consisted of all of the work of the Enlightenment.
Adam Smith: (1723-1790) 1. One of the most important economic philosophers 2. Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). 3. Believed that people should be able to pursue their own economic interests, as a result, they would help boost the economy. 4. He also believed that resources, such as water, air, soil, and minerals were limitless and they demanded exploitation. 5. Considered the founder laissez-faire economics. He believed that government should interfere as little as possible in economics. 6. He also believed in the four-stage theory, which claimed that humans can be classified as “hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural or commercial.”
Mary Wollstonecraft: (1759-1797) 1. Wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which was an essay about the unjust treatment of women. 2. Accused Rousseau of limiting women’s experiences and pegging them into stereotypical roles. 3. She believed that by denying women of education, all of humanity would suffer. 4. Demanded the same liberty and equality for women that men received.
Frederick the Great of Prussia: (1740-1786) 1. “Embodied enlightened absolutism” 2. Commanded the loyalty of the military, the Junker nobility, the Lutheran clergy, the middle class, and university professors. 3. He was very well-liked by all of his followers, so he was able to allow open Enlightenment discussions. 4. He believed in Promotion through Merit, which meant that people had to earn their positions in the state. 5. Fully supported religious toleration. 6. Skilled workers from other countries were encouraged to stay in the country. 7. Made the Civil Service Commission, which meant you had to pass a test to qualify for a job.
Joseph the II of Austria: (1765-1790) 1. Mother was Maria Theresa of Austria 2. Wanted to increase the authority of the Habsburg Empire. 3. Favored religious toleration. 4. Took the Roman Catholic Church under his direct control, dissolved more than 600 monasteries. 5. Abolished tariffs, encouraged the building of roads, and improved the use of river transportation. 6. Allowed peasants “the right to marry, to engage in skilled work, and to have their children learn a skill without having to secure the landlord’s permission”. 7. Declared himself Emperor of the Habsburg Lands.
Catherine the Great of Russia: (1762-1796) 1. “Issued the Charter of the nobility…the empress had to favor the nobles because they could topple her from the throne”. P. 587 2. Favored the expansion of the middle class because she thought they were vital to trade. 3. Russia gained control of important Ottoman provinces that allowed them a direct outlet on the Black Sea, and the right to travel through the waters.
Major Terms Tabula rusa- Means blank page; John Locke argued that all humans enter the world a tabula rusa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Philosophes- The writers and critics who flourished in the expanding print culture and who took the lead in forging the new attitudes favorable to change, championed reform, and advocated toleration. Deism- The religion created by Enlightenment thinkers which states that the life of religion and or reason could be combined. The Deist creed had two major points, the first was a belief in an existence of God, and the second was life after death. The major belief was that God was like a clockmaker, meaning that he put the world and mankind together and let it be. Physiocrats- French economic reformers who wanted government and guilds regulation of labor which led to expansion of trade, manufacture, and agriculture. They believed that the primary role of government was to protect property and permit its owners to use it freely.
MAJOR EVENTS
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA :
Within the mid-century came an extraordinary creation in the realm of print culture. The Encyclopedia, developed under the leadership of Denis Diderot and Jean Rond d' Alembert, was an attempt to encourage freedom of expression within the time period. This became a popular publication among the philosophes, for it contained the most critical ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy. Over one hundred authors contributed The Encyclopedia , aiding to spread the Enlightenment throughout the social and economoic life of the eighteenth century.
MONTESQUIEU AND SPIRIT OF THE LAWS :
The single most influential book of the century, Spirit of the Laws, exhibited the internal tensions of the Enlightenment. Within it, Montesquieu explained that no single set of political laws could apply to all peoples at all times and in all places. In addition, he concluded that the political state of the country, either a monarchy or republic, was dependant on the country's size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions, and climate. Montesquieu illustrated that monarchs are able to be subject to constitutional limits on their power, and that a separate legislature should formulate the country's laws. His political ideals would have a profound effect on the constitutional form of liberal monarchies for more than two centuries.
ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICAL STYLES IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ART
Eighteenth century art and architecture was dominated by two contrasting forms of art- the Rococo and Neoclassical. Rococo embraced lavish, light hearted decorations, making use of pastel colors and the play of light. Some examples of this were found within the architecture of aristocratic homes and the Imperial Hall. Rococo paintings would greatly emphasize landscape while depicting leisurely lives of men and women, filled with romance and seduction.
The Neoclassical style embodied the return of architecture from the Renaissance and ancient world. A famous example of this style is the Pantheon in Paris, a national monument that replicates the style of Roman architecture.
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
Within her book, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft greatly opposed the philosophies of Rousseau. She believed that women were confined within their separate sphere, narrowing their vision and opportunity for success. Wollstonecraft demanded liberty for women within the Enlightenment, similar to the philosophes attempts to liberate man for more than a century. Her efforts placed herself among the philosophers and also influenced the Enlightenment to include the rights of women as well as those of men.
THE PARTITION OF POLAND
Due to territorial tensions between Russia, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire, the three major powers had to decide upon a land aggreement. Russia agrred to abandon the conquered Danubian provinces in compensation for a large portion of Polish territory populating 2 million inhabitants. For remaining neutral, Prussia annexed most of the territoria between East Prussia and Prussia proper. Lastly, Austria took Galicia in southern Poland, home to 2.5 million inhabitants and a prime location for important salt minerals.
Since Poland did not have a strong monarchy, it was not at all able to fight for its place among the larger powers. However, if Poland had put up a struggle, international rivalries and warfare would have inevitably ensued between Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Voltaire: (1694-1778)
1. Born as Francois- Marie Arouet
2. One of the most influential philosophes of the Enlightenment
3. Imprisoned twice as a political prisoner in the Bastille
4. Lived with multiple enlightened rulers, such as Frederick the
Great of Prussia
5. Wrote the novel Candide (1759), a satire that poked fun at
war, politicians, and religious persecution.
John Jacques Rosseau: (1712-1778)
1. Another major philosophe
2. Women should be educated, but should remain subordinate to men.
3. Women are in the domestic sphere of life, while men are in the active, political sphere.
4. Wrote the Social Contract (1762), which gave a basic outline of the social structure that
Rosseau wanted.
5. “Society is more important than the individual members”.
6. Surprisingly, he had a large following of women.
Montesquieu: (1689-1755)
1. born Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu
2. Lawyer, a noble of the robe, and a member of a parlement.
3. Wrote The Persian Letters (1721) to criticize contemporary institutions.
4. Also wrote Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was considered the most influential book of the
century. He concluded that, “No single set of political laws could apply to all people at all times
and in all places”.
5. Believed in division of power in the government, Checks and balances.
Baruch Spinoza: (1632-1677)
1. “Set the example for the secularized version of Judaism”.
2. wrote Ethics, his most famous book, and he was condemned because he wrote about God in
such great detail
3. He was excommunicated from his own synagogue
4. He was actually a devout Jew, but he was looked down upon by Christians and Jews.
5. The Philosophes viewed him as “a martyr for rationality against superstition”
Mosel Mendelshon: (1729-1786)
1. Mendelshon “established the main outlines of an assimilationist position.
2. Considered to be the leading Jewish philosopher of his time.
3. He was considered the “Jewish Socrates”
4. Believed that Judaism could be combined with rationality
5. Wrote On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism (1783), which promoted religious toleration and
maintaining the distinctive lines of the Jewish society.
Denis Diderot: (1713-1784)
1. one of the authors of the Encyclopedia
2. The Encyclopedia consisted of all of the work of the Enlightenment.
Adam Smith: (1723-1790)
1. One of the most important economic philosophers
2. Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776).
3. Believed that people should be able to pursue their own economic interests, as a result, they
would help boost the economy.
4. He also believed that resources, such as water, air, soil, and minerals were limitless and they
demanded exploitation.
5. Considered the founder laissez-faire economics. He believed that government should interfere
as little as possible in economics.
6. He also believed in the four-stage theory, which claimed that humans can be classified as
“hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural or commercial.”
Mary Wollstonecraft: (1759-1797)
1. Wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which was an essay about the unjust treatment
of women.
2. Accused Rousseau of limiting women’s experiences and pegging them into stereotypical roles.
3. She believed that by denying women of education, all of humanity would suffer.
4. Demanded the same liberty and equality for women that men received.
Frederick the Great of Prussia: (1740-1786)
1. “Embodied enlightened absolutism”
2. Commanded the loyalty of the military, the Junker nobility, the Lutheran clergy, the middle
class, and university professors.
3. He was very well-liked by all of his followers, so he was able to allow open Enlightenment
discussions.
4. He believed in Promotion through Merit, which meant that people had to earn their positions in
the state.
5. Fully supported religious toleration.
6. Skilled workers from other countries were encouraged to stay in the country.
7. Made the Civil Service Commission, which meant you had to pass a test to qualify for a job.
Joseph the II of Austria: (1765-1790)
1. Mother was Maria Theresa of Austria
2. Wanted to increase the authority of the Habsburg Empire.
3. Favored religious toleration.
4. Took the Roman Catholic Church under his direct control, dissolved more than 600
monasteries.
5. Abolished tariffs, encouraged the building of roads, and improved the use of river
transportation.
6. Allowed peasants “the right to marry, to engage in skilled work, and to have their children learn
a skill without having to secure the landlord’s permission”.
7. Declared himself Emperor of the Habsburg Lands.
Catherine the Great of Russia: (1762-1796)
1. “Issued the Charter of the nobility…the empress had to favor the nobles because they could
topple her from the throne”. P. 587
2. Favored the expansion of the middle class because she thought they were vital to trade.
3. Russia gained control of important Ottoman provinces that allowed them a direct outlet on the
Black Sea, and the right to travel through the waters.
Major Terms
Tabula rusa- Means blank page; John Locke argued that all humans enter the world a tabula rusa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Philosophes- The writers and critics who flourished in the expanding print culture and who took the lead in forging the new attitudes favorable to change, championed reform, and advocated toleration.
Deism- The religion created by Enlightenment thinkers which states that the life of religion and or reason could be combined. The Deist creed had two major points, the first was a belief in an existence of God, and the second was life after death. The major belief was that God was like a clockmaker, meaning that he put the world and mankind together and let it be.
Physiocrats- French economic reformers who wanted government and guilds regulation of labor which led to expansion of trade, manufacture, and agriculture. They believed that the primary role of government was to protect property and permit its owners to use it freely.
MAJOR EVENTS
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA :
Within the mid-century came an extraordinary creation in the realm of print culture. The Encyclopedia, developed under the leadership of Denis Diderot and Jean Rond d' Alembert, was an attempt to encourage freedom of expression within the time period. This became a popular publication among the philosophes, for it contained the most critical ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy. Over one hundred authors contributed The Encyclopedia , aiding to spread the Enlightenment throughout the social and economoic life of the eighteenth century.MONTESQUIEU AND SPIRIT OF THE LAWS :
The single most influential book of the century, Spirit of the Laws, exhibited the internal tensions of the Enlightenment. Within it, Montesquieu explained that no single set of political laws could apply to all peoples at all times and in all places. In addition, he concluded that the political state of the country, either a monarchy or republic, was dependant on the country's size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions, and climate. Montesquieu illustrated that monarchs are able to be subject to constitutional limits on their power, and that a separate legislature should formulate the country's laws. His political ideals would have a profound effect on the constitutional form of liberal monarchies for more than two centuries.
ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICAL STYLES IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ART
Eighteenth century art and architecture was dominated by two contrasting forms of art- the Rococo and Neoclassical. Rococo embraced lavish, light hearted decorations, making use of pastel colors and the play of light. Some examples of this were found within the architecture of aristocratic homes and the Imperial Hall. Rococo paintings would greatly emphasize landscape while depicting leisurely lives of men and women, filled with romance and seduction.
The Neoclassical style embodied the return of architecture from the Renaissance and ancient world. A famous example of this style is the Pantheon in Paris, a national monument that replicates the style of Roman architecture.
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
Within her book, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft greatly opposed the philosophies of Rousseau. She believed that women were confined within their separate sphere, narrowing their vision and opportunity for success. Wollstonecraft demanded liberty for women within the Enlightenment, similar to the philosophes attempts to liberate man for more than a century. Her efforts placed herself among the philosophers and also influenced the Enlightenment to include the rights of women as well as those of men.
THE PARTITION OF POLAND
Due to territorial tensions between Russia, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire, the three major powers had to decide upon a land aggreement. Russia agrred to abandon the conquered Danubian provinces in compensation for a large portion of Polish territory populating 2 million inhabitants. For remaining neutral, Prussia annexed most of the territoria between East Prussia and Prussia proper. Lastly, Austria took Galicia in southern Poland, home to 2.5 million inhabitants and a prime location for important salt minerals.
Since Poland did not have a strong monarchy, it was not at all able to fight for its place among the larger powers. However, if Poland had put up a struggle, international rivalries and warfare would have inevitably ensued between Russia, Austria, and Prussia.